It is perhaps not an exaggeration to say that spices have had a greater impact

on the world than any other foodstuff Fragrant cloves with their woody over tones, heady sweet cardamom, pungent black pepper, the nutmeg whose com­plex flavours burst forth when grated—all these and other aromatic seasonings of vegetable origin were once so highly prized that some were literally counted out grain by grain.

            Spices have been used for thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians, Romans; Greeks, Indians and Chinese all held spices in great esteem, not only for flavouring food and as medicine but also as an ingredient in magic potions, breath sweeteners and to perfume the air. A few spices, such as cumin which is native to Egypt, originated in the Middle East, but the majority grew in Asia, along the Malabar coast of India, in China and in parts of what is now Indonesia.

            Both the Chinese and Indians had been trading in parts of Southeast Asia for centuries, and spices which they themselves slid not produce were brought to the Asian mainland by sailing boat. From there, camel-laden caravans travelled the Silk Road from western China past northern India and Afghanistan. Their cargoes of silk and spices eventually reached the ports of Syria. Here, they were loaded onto Arab ships for transport to Venice, from where they were distributed to the rest of Europe. By the end of the 14th cen­tury, Venice was importing an estimated 180,000 kilograms (around 400,000 lb) of spices annually, around half of it pepper and dried ginger, the rest made up of cloves, cinnamon, mace, cardamom and fresh ginger.

            As can be imagined, by the time these spices had travelled as far as the mar­kets of mediaeval Europe, the prices were astronomical and spice cupboards in homes that could afford such luxuries were kept under lock and key. It was in an effort to break the Arabian monopoly on spices provided to tl e Venetian markets and to therefore reduce their price that European explorers such as Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama set out on their epic voyages across uncharted oceans.

            India was home to the largest number of spices, especially pepper, car­damom and cinnamon, and their use was described in Sanskrit manuscripts as long as 4,000 years ago. Indian traders voyaging in Southeast Asia, especially to Sumatra and the coast of Indo-China (where their presence was recorded as early as the 5th century AD), not only introduced Hindu beliefs and elements of art and architecture, but also many of their spices.

            It is interesting to note that coastal areas of Southeast Asian countries with a long history of contact with India show a much greater usage of spices in their cuisine than inland civilisations which had virtually no direct contact with the outside. One need only compare the richly spiced, complex dishes of Sumatra (where the Hindu Srivijaya empire was centred) with, for example, the relatively simple food of Central Java. Much more recently, contact by Indian" traders in the 19th century (especially in Thailand) and the immigration of Indians to Malaya and Singapore during the same period and well on into the 20th century have had an influence on the use of Indian spices in those countries.

            China, even more than India, has influenced the cuisines of the region. Although Chinese trading junks have plied the seas for centuries, it was the immigration of hundreds of thousands of Chinese to every part of Southeast Asia during the past century that had the greatest impact. Ingredients such as soy sauce, beancurd, bean sprouts and noodles were all introduced by the Chi­nese, as were spices native to China, particularly the cinnamon-scented star anise and cassia.

            By a quirk of climate and geography, five tiny islands in the Moluccan archipelago, in what is now Indonesia, were once the sole home of cloves and the nutmeg tree, whose fruit produce both nutmeg and mace. Although the Por­tuguese reached the area first, the Dutch were the eventual winners in the race for controlling the source of cloves and nutmeg, and in the 17th century, went on to colonise the islands of the Indonesian archipelago, which they named the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch were even more ruthless than the Arab traders had been in their efforts to monopolise the Moluccan spice' trade. They restricted the production of cloves to control the prices, and cut down the trees of any grower who had the temerity to plant them without permission. However, clove seedlings were eventually smuggled out of the Moluccas by the 19th century, and now, somewhat ironically, Indonesia imports cloves from Tanzania to meet local demand for their kretek cigarettes.`

            The British had established nutmeg plantations on the island of Penang i7ti the end of the 18th century, later planting them on Singapore (and in the West Indies) as well. The nutmeg has today lost much of its value and supply is greater than the demand. A beautiful tree which produces a golden fruit some what like an apricot, the nutmeg inspired a nursery song which implies that the Spanish may have tried to secure some of the trade in this spice;

I had a little nut tree and nothing would it bear,

But a silver nutmeg and a golden pear;

The king of Spain's daughter came to visit me,

All for the sake of my little nut tree."

In today's world of modern transportation and international trade, spices are treated much the same as any other commodity. They are not only put to culinary use but incorporated in toothpastes, perfumes, cosmetics and soaps. The mystery and rarity of spices have virtually disappeared, but their magical effect on food and their ability to delight the palate remain unchanged.